Epistemological Turn in European Scientific Rationality :: Science Essays

Epistemological Turn in European Scientific Rationality ABSTRACT: If the 17th century could be considered the century of the reformation of science, the present century is one of counterreformation in every sense of the word. The ideology of this century can be seen in the titanic efforts to complete the development of science which foundation was laid in the 17th and 18th centuries, in the outright failures, and in attempts at reconstructing the foundation (e.g., Hilbert's formalization program, GÃ ¶del's incompleteness theorem, Charlier's theory of a hierarchic universe, Fridman's evolutionary cosmology, Newton's mechanics, relativistic and/or quantum mechanics in physics, the logical turn of the Vienna circle and epistemological anarchism in methodology). Our task is to reveal the essence of the turning points in 20th century science and to determine at least the general outlines, if not the cause, of the new type of rationality that is replacing the old one. I will focus on the history of cosmology, or rather on its three paradigms t hat have succeeded each other in this century: Newtonian, Fridmanian and the inflationary paradigms. By outlining the problem, I will pose a possible solution from clarifying changes in the value orientations, ideals and norms of scientific research to their possible generalization. If the 17th century could be considered the century of the reformation of science, the present century is one of counterreformation in every sense of the word. Ever since the turn of the century, the same ideology has been in existence: titanic efforts to complete the development of the science whose foundation was laid in the 17th and 18th centuries and outright failures followed by the reconstruction of the foundation. There are many exemples, some of them very striking: Hilbert's formalisation program and Godel's incompleteness theorem in mathematics, Charlier's theory of a hierarchic universe and Fridman's theory of the evolutionary universe in cosmology, Newton's mechanics and relativistic and quantum mechanics in physics, and finally, the logical program of the Vienna circle and epistemological anarchism in methodology. Our task is to reveal the essence of the turning points in 20th centuries science history and to try to determine at least the general outlines, if not the cause, of the new type of rationality that is succeeding (or has already succeeded) the old one. Needless to say, we are obviously unable to embrace all branches of knowledge ; therefore, we will confine ourselves to the history of cosmology, or rather to its three paradigms that successively prevailed in this century : Newtonian, Fridman's and inflationary.

Bladder Cancer

BLADDER CANCER Bladder cancer is the growth of malignant cells in the urinary bladder. Most forms of bladder cancer start in the superficial layer of the transitional epithelium, and most often affect the transitional cells. It may also be called transitional cell carcinoma or even urothelial carcinoma. Urothelial carcinoma is also a term used for transitional cell cancer in the renal pelvis, ureters, and urethra. Bladder cancer is a relatively common disease. It is the fourth leading cancer among men (following prostate, lung, colorectal cancers), and the tenth leading cancer among women; occurring in men about three times more often than women. Like most types of cancer, bladder cancer usually involves epithelial cells, in this case, the transitional epithelium that lines the urinary bladder. Constant repetitive damage to the epithelium causes the mature cells to die. This stimulates rapid replication in the basal layer, and soon new colonies of immature cells migrate to the surface. These new cells are easily disrupted by genetic mutations and may become malignant growths that cause bleeding into the bladder. The causes of bladder cancer vary according to medical history and geographical location. People who have had pelvic radiation for other problems and people who have had chronic infections, bladder stones, or catheter use are at an increased risk for developing bladder cancer. In Africa, Asia, and South America, bladder cancer is associated with a specific parasitic infection, called Schistosoma haematobium. In the United States and industrial countries, most cases of bladder cancer are directly related to more controllable factors. The transitional epithelium of the bladder seems to be particularly susceptible to damage from environmental toxins. Several genetic mutations that limit the body’s ability to slow down tumor growth or invasion have been linked to bladder cancer. These mutations are frequently triggered by exposure to carcinogenic substances. About half of bladder cancer cases are believed to be related to cigarette smoking. Other contributing factors include exposure to aromatic chemicals used in dry cleaning fluid, hairdressing chemicals, and textile and rubber industries. The earliest most dependable sign of bladder cancer is hematuria (blood in the urine). The urine of a bladder cancer patient is often noticeably reddened or rust colored, although the patient has no particular pain in the early stages of the disease. If the tumors continue to grow and invade deeper layers of the bladder, secondary symptoms may develop. These are the result of mechanical pressure, including the bladder irritability (painful urination, increased frequency of urinating, reduced urine output) and compression on the rectum, pelvic lymph nodes, and any other structures that may be in the way. In order to diagnose bladder cancer, urine samples may be tested to look for shedding cancer cells, and a digital rectal exam (or a pelvic exam if the patient is a woman) provides information about tumors. Other diagnostic techniques include using dye to stain the urine and make the bladder easy to radiograph. Specific markers for bladder cancer have recently been identified, but tests to find them are not yet consistently accurate or widely available. However, continued development in this area show a promising future toward the early detection and treatment of this disease. How to treat bladder cancer depends on the stage at diagnosis. Surgeons can use a small wire loop at the end of a cystoscope to remove abnormal tissue, or another tool may be used to burn the tumor away with electricity. More invasive surgeries may remove part or the entire bladder, and if signs of pelvic metastasis are present, other tissues as well. Urine flow may be routed out of the body through a stoma, or a variety of surgeries have been developed to form artificial bladders from parts of the large or small intestine. In addition to surgery, radiation and chemotherapy may be used in the battle against bladder cancer. More than 70% of bladder cancer diagnoses are made when the cells affect only superficial layers of tissue. Of course, this is excellent news because the survival rate for cancers caught early is much better than for cancers caught in stage three or later. Even so, bladder cancer has an unusual habit of growing in several places at once, so although it may be possible to catch one or two tumors, any invisible third, fourth, and fifth tumors may not become symptomatic for another several months. This means that the reoccurrence rate for bladder cancer is surprisingly high; up to 80% percent of bladder cancer patients have at least one reoccurrence. The relation between bladder cancer and carcinogenic substances is one of the most clearly demonstrated links between environmental exposures and cancer. The good news is the bladder cancer is probably a completely preventable disease, if exposure to the carcinogenic substances is limited or eradicated. References Bladder Cancer. (2008). Retrieved 30 January, 2009, from Mayo Clinic Foundation for Medical Education and Research Web site: http://www. mayoclinic. com/health/bladder-cancer/DS00177 General Information about Bladder Cancer. (2008). Retrieved 30 January, 2009, from National Cancer Institute Web site: http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/types/bladder Health Information: Bladder Cancer. (2008). Retrieved 30 January, 2009, from University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Clinic Authority Web site: http://apps. uwhealth. org/health/adam/hie/1/000486. htm

Serial Killers Jack The Ripper - 1546 Words

There are many serial killers that live in infamy as household names such as, Charles Manson, John Wayne Gacy, and Ted Bundy, to name a few. These killers, and others, are well known today for their actions and will forever live, known as serial killers. However, there are a few cases where the killer is never actually caught. Often the cases grow cold and the victims, are quickly forgotten. There is a very special and bizarre case that sticks out from the others and because of this many do remember. The case, almost as old as modern policing itself, is simply remembered by name coined for the killer, Jack the Ripper. What makes Jack the Ripper such a mystery is the fact that he was never caught. The five murders carried out by Jack the Ripper were located at Whitechapel. Whitechapel is a small town in London which was stricken with poverty. Families lived in very small single room houses. These houses were cramped with as many as nine family members per room. Overcrowding led to miserable living conditions in and out of houses. Many people threw out their trash and waste onto the street and the lack of a sanitation and sewer system also led to dangerous living conditions. For the families that could not afford the single room houses there was another option, lodging houses. Every night almost eight thousand people refuged in these lodging houses. When staying at these lodging houses families were often forced to sleep in a single room with many other families. TheShow MoreRelatedEnglish Serial Killers: Jack the Ripper1449 Words   |  6 PagesFinal Research Paper One-hundred twenty-five years ago England saw its first serial killer, Jack the Ripper. His mysterious identity and evasion from the police intrigues people who enjoy learning about the criminal acts of infamous serial killers. There was poverty in this time in London and was having trouble with the overcrowding of people. Jack the Ripper has a very distinctive style of killing and all his victims were all killed a certain way. He was never caught because of the lack of technologyRead MoreEssay Jack the Ripper1209 Words   |  5 Pages â€Å"Jack the Ripper† Jack the Ripper was a notorious serial killer, whom some believe never even existed at all. From August to November 1888, Jack the Ripper terrorized the East End of London by being responsible for the death and mutilation of at least seven female prostitutes. The destitute East End is also known as the White Chapel district of London, England. A few of the prostitutes were targeted as they were leaving brothels in and around the White Chapel district. Jack the Ripper seemedRead MoreWhy Were the Police Unable to Catch Jack the Ripper?1412 Words   |  6 Pagesthe police unable to catch Jack the Ripper? There were a number of reasons for why the infamous serial killer known as Jack the Ripper managed to escape with the killings which he did to prostitutes in Whitechapel. There was no single reason for why the Ripper managed to escape from the police however there was a number of reasons such as the nature of the Whitechapel, the Rippers methods, the role of the press, other stories which conflicted to theories of who the Ripper was, mistakes of the policeRead MoreSerial Killers in Modern Society1558 Words   |  6 PagesSerial Killers in Modern Society Introduction For hundreds of years, serial killers have actually been a huge fascination all over the world. Even though society has an undeveloped idea as to what a serial killer is and how they function, there is much more to serial killers that people are probably unaware of. In spite of classic myths regarding serial killers which are displayed a lot in movies, this essay will recognize serial killers as irregular as the individual that utilizes various strategiesRead MoreJack The Ripper And Lizzie Borden1192 Words   |  5 PagesKaris Kennedy Burrow American Lit 11/3/17 Jack the Ripper and Lizzie Borden A serial killer can be defined as â€Å"a person who commits a series of murders, often with no apparent motive and typically following a characteristic, predictable behavior pattern.† (McGraw-Hill) While there have always been serial killers, the 1880’s had some of the most significant. Two of the most notorious were â€Å"Jack the Ripper† and Lizzie Borden. While neither were convicted for their crimes, they will both go down inRead MoreJack the Ripper Essay918 Words   |  4 PagesJack the Ripper is one of the most well-known serial killers of the ages. Although everyone knows the name, â€Å"Jack the Ripper,† nobody really knows of his true identity. When the murder victims were found the press and the detectives could never put a name with the crime. Jack the Ripper is a mythic figure comparable with Frankenstein and Dracula. The Rippers first three murdered whores, in 1888, were believed to be by the same person. These murdered victims all seemed to occur around the ParishRead MoreMurder Is An Interesting Topic. Everyone Wants To Know1563 Words   |  7 Pagesthough is serial killers. They kill over three people, and no one knows why. Serial Killers are some of the most mysterious and misunderstood criminals in law enforcement. Jack the Ripper Five female prostitutes left the world in 1888, due to an unidentified killer known as Jack the Ripper( â€Å"Jack the Ripper Biography†).Jack the Ripper was never caught and was considered to be a person with medical knowledge with the expertise that he used to remove organs from his victims. Jack the Ripper killed womenRead MoreBlack And White : Victorian Crime Scenes And The Ripper Photographs931 Words   |  4 PagesAnwer, M. 2014. Murder in black and white: Victorian crime scenes and the Ripper photographs. Victorian Studies 56.3:433-441 This article focuses on an extensive analysis of the photographs of the Jack the Ripper’s, a 19th century serial killer, victims and how they are taken in a way which wrongs the victims. The author uses many sources to provide evidence for her argument. She has an obvious bias and tries to describe the negative effects of Victorian post-mortem photography on the way the victimsRead MoreEssay about Summary for Jack the Ripper840 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The Hunt for Jack the Ripper† Jack the Ripper was said to be the first serial killer in the modern sense. In the article â€Å"The Hunt for Jack the Ripper,† William D. Rubinstein’s main idea is to explain and examined some of the murder victims, and possible suspects for Jack the Ripper. Rubinstein goes into great detail to try and define who the ripper actually was, but this is still an unsolved mystery in history. Rubinstein’s main ideas are the different possibilities for Jack the Ripper; however thereRead MoreThe Reasons Behind Polices Inability To Catch Jack The Ripper980 Words   |  4 PagesThe Reasons Behind Polices Inability To Catch Jack The Ripper Jack The Ripper was never caught, and his identity remains a mystery to this day. The police were unable to catch Jack The Ripper and solve the mystery of the Whit Chapel murders because of several reasons. The first reason is the police themselves. In London, there were two police forces. The Metropolitan police and the City Of London police. The murders took place in both of the jurisdictions. The police